Austrian Federal Army (1st Republic)
The Austrian Federal Army of the First Republic (German: Bundesheer der Ersten Republik) was the combined military forces of the Republic of Austria from 1920 to 1938 when the Bundesheer was incorporated into the Wehrmacht (responsible: Wilhelm List) on 13 March 1938 due to the Anschluss, the reunification of Austria with Germany as a province (Ostmark) of the German Reich.
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History
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Deutschösterreichische Volkswehr
The Deutschösterreichische Volkswehr (English: German-Austrian People's Militia, often simply called the Volkswehr, was the provisional armed force of the newly proclaimed Republic of German-Austria (Deutschösterreich) following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of World War I. Established amid revolutionary chaos and the Bolshevik threat, it served as a transitional military to maintain order, prevent territorial losses, and counter both internal radical threats (e.g., communist uprisings) and external encroachments by neighboring successor states. Under the leadership of socialist politician Julius Deutsch, the Volkswehr embodied democratic ideals with strong soldier input but was plagued by demobilization challenges, equipment shortages, and political tensions. It existed from late 1918 until its dissolution in late 1920, paving the way for the formal Bundesheer (Federal Army) under the constraints of the Treaty of Saint-Germain.
The Volkswehr emerged from the power vacuum created by the empire's dissolution. On 30 October 1918, the provisional government of German-Austria, dominated by the Social Democratic Workers' Party (SDAP), issued "Preliminary Guidelines for the Formation of the Volkswehr," aiming to create a people's militia distinct from the discredited k.u.k. (Imperial and Royal) Army. This was formalized on 3 November 1918, when Julius Deutsch— a socialist war veteran and Under Secretary of State for Armed Forces—was tasked with its establishment. The goal was to recruit volunteers and remnants of the old army loyal to the republic, avoiding a "Red Army" feared by conservatives while filling the military void.
Initially organized into small, decentralized battalions (ca. 400 men each) to prevent any single unit from becoming too powerful and to facilitate potential integration into the German Reichswehr (reflecting early Anschluss aspirations). By late November, the first Zivilkommissariat (civil oversight body) was created to monitor officers, ensuring civilian control.
Field Marshal Lieutenant (FMLt) Adolf von Boog was sworn in as Supreme Commander on 11 November 1918, but real influence lay with Julius Deutsch and soldier councils (Soldatenräte), which elected representatives and vetted orders. Over 100 "Volkswehrleutnants" (people's lieutenants) from the ranks were promoted to counter "reactionary" old-guard officers still loyal to the monarchy. Recruitment was uneven—urban areas like Vienna exceeded targets, reaching 35 battalions and ~20,000 men by end-1918, while rural regions lagged. Total strength hovered around 16,000–17,000 in Vienna alone, drawn from demobilized soldiers, workers, and youth. The Volkswehr's uniforms were largely recycled from k.u.k. stocks, with new arm patches for ranks, symbolizing continuity amid economic hardship.
The Volkswehr's primary roles were defensive: securing borders against Czech, Yugoslav, Hungarian, and Polish forces seizing ethnic German territories as well as terrorizing the inhabitants, and suppressing internal unrest. It operated under the "Vorläufige Bestimmungen über die bewaffnete Macht" (Provisional Regulations on Armed Power), enacted by the Provisional National Assembly on 6 February 1919, which introduced universal conscription from age 18 but emphasized voluntary service.
Operations
- Border Conflicts in Bohemia (November to December 1918)
- Czech troops rapidly occupied German-majority areas (Sudetenland). Volkswehr units, like the Replacement Battalions of former Regiments 93 and 99, retreated to Mauthausen and Mistelbach without resistance, providing aid to refugees but losing the "Böhmerwald-Gau" region. Outcome: Permanent territorial loss; units integrated as non-combat auxiliaries for logistics.
- Carinthian Defensive War (December 1918 to June 1920)
- Yugoslav forces invaded southern Carinthia (Kärnten). Volkswehr battalions, reinforced by local Freikorps and Heimwehr (homeland defense), held lines at Tarvisio and Klagenfurt, using guerrilla tactics and fortifications. Key actions included the Battle of Ferlach (December 1918) and advances to the Karawanks. Outcome: Success in retaining northern Carinthia; plebiscite in Oct 1920 confirmed Austrian control. Volkswehr units here numbered ~5,000–7,000 at peak.
- Styrian Border Protection (1918–1919)
- Clashes with Yugoslavs over southern Styria (e.g., around Graz). A Grenzschutzkommando (Border Guard Command) was formed, repelling incursions but facing ammunition shortages. Outcome: Stabilized borders temporarily; Burgenland (Deutsch-Westungarn) claims lingered as a dispute with Hungary.
- Internal Security (1918–1919)
- Suppressed communist uprisings (e.g., Jan 1919 in Vienna) and monarchist plots. Soldier councils prevented mutinies during demobilization of ~1.5 million k.u.k. troops. Outcome: Maintained republican stability but highlighted socialist-conservative divides; no full-scale civil war.
Support elements were rudimentary: infantry-focused with limited artillery (from old stocks), nascent air units (from 6 December 1918, ~20 aircraft), and "marine companies" in inland cities like Vienna and Linz, despite no coastline. Economic woes—hyperinflation and disarmament pressures from Allies—hampered growth; foreign powers like Italy and France viewed it suspiciously, fearing "revanchism" over South Tyrol.
By mid-1919, the Volkswehr reached ~30,000–40,000 men (including reserves), but dual pressures mounted: ongoing demobilization of the old army (seen as a threat by the victors) and preparations for peace talks. The failed Kapp Putsch in Germany (March 1920) heightened fears of coups, prompting Deutsch to institutionalize soldier representatives as "Vertrauensmänner" (trustees) in a proposed Wehrgesetz (Defense Law). However, Anschluss hopes faded, and the force shifted toward independent republican defense.
Radical leftists (communists and spartacists) in Vienna and industrial areas launched a general strike, seizing factories. Volkswehr units, loyal to the government, crushed it within days, marking the end of major revolutionary threats but eroding socialist unity.
The Treaty of Saint-Germain (signed 10 September 1919, effective July 1920) capped Austria at a 30,000-man professional army without conscription, heavy weapons, or air force. The Volkswehr was disbanded starting March 1920, with units reorganized into the Bundesheer by October 1920. Many personnel transferred directly, preserving experience, while others formed paramilitaries like the Republikanischer Schutzbund (under Deutsch).
The Volkswehr was a fragile bridge from imperial collapse to republican stability, embodying the 1918 Revolution's democratic-military fusion. It prevented total anarchy and secured key territories but was undermined by the treaty's restrictions and internal politics. Historians like Karl Glaubauf note its role in "founding the republic," though it left a militarized society prone to later civil strife (e.g., 1934). Julius Deutsch's memoirs (1923) portray it as a "people's army" against reaction, while conservative views criticized its "Bolshevik" leanings. Artifacts, like uniforms in Vienna's Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, underscore its improvised nature. By 1920, it had evolved into the Bundesheer, setting the stage for Austria's interwar military history.
Bundesheer
The Austrian Bundesheer (Federal Army) in the 1930s was a small, defensive force constrained by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919), which limited Austria to a 30,000-man standing army with no conscription, heavy weapons, Panzer, or an air force beyond basic training units. However, under the rule of Engelbert Dollfuss and later Kurt Schuschnigg, Austria began covert rearmament from the early 1930s, introducing limited conscription in 1935 and expanding capabilities.
This made the army modestly stronger by 1937 than its nominal treaty limits, though it remained under-equipped and under-manned compared to major powers like Germany. Strength assessments focus on active personnel (peacetime cadre), as full mobilization could theoretically add reservists, but actual wartime readiness was limited by training and equipment shortages.
By 1935, the Bundesheer had transitioned from a near-police force to a basic defensive army following the introduction of 12-month conscription in July 1934 (effective 1935) and the "July Putsch" suppression, which integrated Heimwehr paramilitaries. Defensive planning, such as the "Jansa Plan" (initiated fall 1935), emphasized border fortifications and anti-tank defenses.
Active personnel
- ~30,000 (treaty limit; primarily infantry cadre, with conscription slowly increasing intake to ~20,000 recruits annually).
Organization
- 7 infantry divisions (understrength), nascent motorized elements; no full armored division yet.
Equipment
- Infantry: Mannlicher rifles, limited machine guns (e.g., Schwarzlose M.07/12).
- Artillery: ~100 light field guns (e.g., Skoda 75mm M15), few howitzers.
- Anti-tank: Early development of 47mm Böler guns (none deployed yet).
- Armor/Air: None (treaty ban); ~20 obsolete aircraft for training.
- Vehicles: Basic trucks; limited motorized reconnaissance.
Overall Assessment
- Weak offensively; suitable for short-term defense of Alpine passes but vulnerable to blitzkrieg tactics due to ammunition shortages and poor mechanization. Budget constraints limited expansion.
Strength in 1937
- Rearmament accelerated post-1935, with conscription enabling fuller divisions and the absorption of Heimwehr units. The April 1937 army list (Schematismus) reflects peak pre-Anschluss structure, focused on countering invasion via fortified lines and guerrilla tactics. ~36,000 officers and men (per League of Nations Armament Yearbook 1937 and a report of the British Parliament; conscription added ~10,000-15,000 trained reserves callable).
- 7 infantry divisions, 1 motorized ("fast-moving") division, 1 independent infantry brigade; total ~9 divisional equivalents on paper.
- Infantry: ~200,000 rifles total (including reserves), ~1,000 machine guns.
- Artillery: ~300 field guns/howitzers (e.g., Skoda 100mm M16, 10cm M99).
- Anti-tank: ~100-150 47mm guns (deployable by 1938).
- Armor: Limited tankettes (e.g., ~20 CV-33/35 imports); ADGZ armored cars for reconnaissance.
- Air: ~50-60 fighters/bombers (e.g., Fiat CR.32, Caproni Ca.133; still under treaty guise as "police" aircraft).
- Vehicles: ~500 trucks; emerging motorized infantry in the fast division.
Improved defensive posture with better anti-tank capabilities, but still outdated and manpower-short; could resist for weeks with mobilization (~150,000 total) but not defeat a Wehrmacht assault without allies. By 1938, it yielded 9 divisions to Germany post-Anschluss.
- Manpower: +6,000 active due to conscription; reserves grew from negligible to ~100,000 (partially trained).
- Modernization: Shift from static infantry to limited mobility; anti-tank focus addressed German armor threats.
- Limitations: Chronic shortages in aircraft, heavy artillery, and fuel; political instability hampered full implementation.
These figures are drawn from contemporary reports (e.g., League of Nations) and highlight the Bundesheer's role as a "speed bump" against aggression, not a peer competitor. For deeper tactical details, the Jansa Plan emphasized demolitions and mountain warfare over open-field battles.
Wehrmacht
The incorporation of the Austrian Bundesheer into the Wehrmacht was not immediate on 13 March 1938 but occurred somewhat later, with the process beginning in the days immediately following the Anschluss and being formalized and concluded in November 1938. However, the integration was officially backdated to 13 March 1938 for administrative, legal, and service continuity purposes, aligning with the proclamation of Austria's accession to the German Reich.
At this point, the Bundesheer was effectively disbanded as an independent force, with its personnel (around 36,000 active soldiers) placed under German command. Hitler explicitly stated that the Austrian army was now "incorporated" into the Wehrmacht, though this was more a de facto absorption than a completed administrative merger.
On 14 March 1938, Bundesheer members were required to swear a personal oath of allegiance to Hitler, marking the initial symbolic and practical transfer of loyalty. Austrian units began being redesignated with German numbering (e.g., the 2nd and 3rd Austrian Infantry Regiments became the 88th and 89th Regiments of the German 4th Light Division), and personnel were integrated en masse into existing or new Wehrmacht formations.
On 15 to 17 March 1938, further oaths were administered to Austrian civil servants and military personnel. By this stage, the Bundesheer's equipment, barracks, and structures were incorporated and repurposed by the Wehrmacht, with Austrian officers and NCOs reassigned to German commands. This rapid phase added approximately 50,000 Austrian troops (including reserves) to the Wehrmacht's order of battle overnight.
From March to October 1938, the ongoing reorganization involved reassigning personnel to new corps (e.g., Wehrkreis XVII and XVIII in Austria), and standardizing training and logistics. Many Austrian units retained their identities initially but were gradually dissolved or renumbered. In November 1938, the formal, bureaucratic incorporation—handling ranks, pensions, and full legal assimilation—was completed, as documented in contemporary German military records and historical analyses.
The entire process was retroactively dated to 13 March 1938 in official Wehrmacht documentation to legitimize the voluntary union and ensure continuity for Austrian veterans' service records, pay, and promotions. This backdating was a common National Socialist administrative measure. For instance, Austrian soldiers' Wehrmacht service time was calculated as starting from that date, even if their actual integration occurred weeks or months later.
In practice, the Bundesheer ceased to exist as a distinct entity by mid-March 1938, but the full merger required months of logistical work. This contributed to initial frictions, such as unequal treatment of Austrian officers compared to their German counterparts, though many Austrians rose to high ranks in the Wehrmacht thereafter.
