Peace of Westphalia
| Peace of Westphalia Treaties of Osnabrück and Münster | |
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| The Swearing of the Oath of Ratification of the Treaty of Münster, oil on copper by Gerard Terborch, 1648, depicting the settlement of the Peace of Westphalia. | |
| Type | Peace treaty
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| Drafted | 1646–1648 |
| Signed | 24 October 1648 |
| Location | Osnabrück and Münster, Westphalia, Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation |
| Parties | 109 |
| Languages | Latin |
A peace congress, which lasted from 1643 to 1648 and was held in the German cities of Osnabrück and Münster in protracted negotiations that were often threatened with failure, finally brought about the peace that went down in history as the Peace of Westphalia (German: Westfälischer Friede; Latin: Pax Westphalica).
History
In the first half of the 17th century, a war raged in Central Europe that brought an unimaginable amount of suffering to the people. The Thirty Years' War began in 1618 as a religious conflict and grew into a conflict over hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation and in Europe. It brought with it the destruction of entire regions, plundering, hunger, murder and expulsion. It was not only the people who longed for peace. There was also a growing desire on the part of the warring parties to end this extremely costly war with its heavy losses.
- The Peace of Westphalia, concluded in 1648 in Münster (Germany), ended the Thirty Years’ War, which started with an anti-Habsburg revolt in Bohemia in 1618 but became an entanglement of different conflicts concerning the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, religion, and the state system of Europe. This contest was a civil “German war,” but foreign powers played a crucial role. The Peace of Westphalia ended with the signing of two treaties between the empire and the new great powers, Sweden and France, and settled the conflicts inside the empire with their guarantees. A new electorate was established for the exiled son of the revolt’s leader, the elector Palatine. Bavaria kept the electorate that it had been given for its support of the Emperor Ferdinand II during the revolt. This compromise in 1648 meant a change of the empire’s fundamental Golden Bull of 1356 and was a symbol that all conflicts occurring since 1618 were resolved and that those who made peace did not avoid radical cuts and invented fresh ideas in order to make peace. Catholics and Protestants (now including Calvinists as well as Lutherans) accepted each other. Several regulations guaranteed their balance: 1624 was declared the “normal year” of any territory’s denomination, minorities were tolerated or had a right to emigrate, and no one could be forced to convert any longer.
- The Peace of Westphalia is regarded as a milestone in the development toward tolerance and secularization. This settlement also strengthened the imperial Estates: they could enter into foreign alliances and decide important matters, such as peace and war, along with the Emperor. The suspected ambition of the Habsburgs for a “universal monarchy” was thereby controlled, in particular because the Franco-Spanish negotiations in Münster did not bring peace between France and Spain and left open conflict areas, such as Lorraine. Moreover, France and Sweden got territorial “satisfaction,” especially in Alsace and Pomerania. The Peace of Westphalia also confirmed the legal independence of the Swiss Confederation, whereas by a separate peace with Spain, in Münster, the United Provinces of the Netherlands officially became a sovereign state after eighty years of war. The Peace of Westphalia was crucial in German and international history. Its precise role in the European state system and international law is, however, subject to controversy, such as the debate over the “Westphalian System” in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Controversies about the Peace of Westphalia are not new. The history of its reception and interpretation is as long as the history of its emergence. Unquestionably, though, the negotiations were a milestone in diplomacy and peacemaking. Sources on the peace are most valuable for always changing methods and perspectives of history. Research on the Peace of Westphalia increased enormously with its 350th anniversary in 1998 and its several conferences and exhibitions.[1]
The three peace treaties concluded in Osnabrück and Münster between 15 May and 24 October 1648, which ended the Thirty Years' War in Germany and the Eighty Years' War of Independence in the Netherlands, are known as the Peace of Westphalia. Osnabrück was the negotiating centre for the Swedes, the Emperor Ferdinand III's envoys and the Protestant imperial estates, while the envoys of France, the Roman-German Emperor and the Catholic imperial estates met in Münster. Both Protestant Sweden and Catholic France demanded a negotiating venue where their envoys could practise their faith. The proximity of the two cities also ensured a rapid exchange of information. They also had an intact urban infrastructure to accommodate the delegations travelling from all parts of the empire and neighbouring European countries.
- The peace treaty between the Swedes, the Imperial Estates and the Emperor, the Instrumentum Pacis Osnabrugensis (IPO), was concluded on 6 August 1648 in the residence of the Swedish negotiator Axelsson Oxenstierna. The peace was solemnly sealed here with the so-called Osnabrück handshake. This treaty was signed together with the Peace of Münster, the Instrumentum Pacis Monasteriensis, concluded between the Holy Roman Emperor and France on 24 October 1648 in Münster. The Spanish-Dutch Partial Peace had already been concluded in Münster on 15 May 1648. The peace treaty and thus the end of the Thirty Years' War was finally proclaimed on 25 October 1648 from the steps of Osnabrück town hall. An event that is commemorated today with numerous events every year. The Peace of Westphalia, concluded in the town halls of Osnabrück and Münster, laid the first foundations for a European community of states. With their provisions of international law, the peace treaties developed into a pillar of international relations that are still of great importance today. For the first time, conflicts could be resolved through negotiation and a willingness to compromise. In addition, a special achievement was agreed in Osnabrück that was unique in Germany: an alternating succession of Protestant and Catholic prince-bishops, which lasted until 1803 and regulated peaceful coexistence between the denominations. Today, more than ever, Osnabrück sees itself as a city of peace that actively shapes its historical legacy as a mandate for peace policy and peace culture. This commitment is supported by numerous institutions, but also by a large number of civic initiatives and associations.[2]
Osnabrück
Since Lutheran Sweden preferred Osnabrück as a conference venue, its peace negotiations with the Holy Roman Empire, including the allies of both sides, took place in Osnabrück. The empire and its opponent France, including the allies of each, as well as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands and its opponent Spain (and their respective allies), negotiated in Münster. The peace negotiations had no exact beginning and ending, because the participating total of 109 delegations never met in a plenary session, but arrived between 1643 and 1646 and left between 1647 and 1649. According to the Peace of Westphalia, all parties would recognize the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, in which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state (the principle of cuius regio, eius religio).
Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will. The delegates also recognized the exclusive sovereignty of each party over its lands, people, and agents abroad, and responsibility for the warlike acts of any of its citizens or agents. Multiple territorial adjustments were also decided. Among the most important ones was the recognition of the independence of Switzerland from the Holy Roman Empire and the expansion of the territories of France, Sweden, and Brandenburg-Prussia (later Prussia). The independence of the city of Bremen was clarified. Also, barriers to trade and commerce erected during the war were abolished, and “a degree” of free navigation was guaranteed on the Rhine.
